Nestled in the rugged mountains of the South Caucasus, the region of Karabakh has been a focal point of geopolitical struggles, cultural exchanges, and violent conflicts for centuries. Today, as the world grapples with territorial disputes, ethnic tensions, and the resurgence of nationalism, Karabakh’s history offers a lens through which we can understand the complexities of modern geopolitics.
The Ancient Roots of Karabakh
Early Settlements and Kingdoms
Karabakh’s history stretches back to antiquity, with archaeological evidence suggesting human habitation as early as the Bronze Age. The region was part of the ancient kingdom of Caucasian Albania, a state that flourished between the 4th century BCE and the 8th century CE. Unlike its namesake in the Balkans, this Albania was a melting pot of Caucasian, Persian, and later Armenian influences.
By the medieval period, Karabakh became a battleground for rival empires. The Armenian Principality of Khachen emerged as a semi-independent entity, blending Christian Armenian traditions with the political realities of Persian and Turkic dominance. The region’s strategic location made it a coveted prize for the Seljuks, Mongols, and Timurids, each leaving their mark on its cultural landscape.
The Rise of the Karabakh Khanate
In the 18th century, Karabakh became the center of a semi-autonomous Karabakh Khanate, ruled by a Turkic dynasty under Persian suzerainty. This period saw the rise of Shusha (Shushi), a fortress city that became a hub of trade, poetry, and craftsmanship. The khanate’s multicultural character—home to Armenians, Turkic tribes, and Kurds—was both a strength and a source of tension.
The Russian Empire and the Seeds of Conflict
Annexation and Demographic Shifts
The early 19th century marked a turning point when the Russian Empire annexed Karabakh as part of its expansion into the Caucasus. Russian rule brought administrative reforms but also intensified ethnic rivalries. The empire’s policy of favoring Christian Armenians over Muslim Azeris sowed discord, as land ownership and political influence became increasingly contentious.
The Soviet Era: Arbitrary Borders and Suppressed Tensions
Under Soviet rule, Karabakh was designated as the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) within the Azerbaijan SSR. Despite its majority-Armenian population, the region was kept under Azerbaijani administration—a decision that would fuel future conflicts. Soviet policies suppressed nationalist sentiments, but underground movements in both Armenia and Azerbaijan kept the Karabakh question alive.
The First Karabakh War: A Bloody Prelude
The Collapse of the USSR and Escalation
As the Soviet Union crumbled in the late 1980s, long-simmering tensions erupted into open war. Armenian separatists, backed by Yerevan, declared independence for Nagorno-Karabakh, leading to a brutal conflict with Azerbaijani forces. The war, marked by ethnic cleansing on both sides, ended in 1994 with a de facto Armenian victory and the establishment of the Republic of Artsakh, though unrecognized internationally.
The Displacement Crisis
The war displaced hundreds of thousands, creating a humanitarian disaster. Azeris fled Armenian-controlled areas, while Armenians left Azerbaijani territories. The scars of this conflict lingered for decades, with sporadic clashes keeping the region on edge.
The 2020 War and a Shifting Geopolitical Landscape
Azerbaijan’s Military Triumph
In September 2020, Azerbaijan, backed by Turkey and Israeli drones, launched a decisive offensive. The 44-day war saw Azerbaijan reclaim much of Karabakh, culminating in a Russian-brokered ceasefire. The agreement allowed for a Russian peacekeeping mission but left the region’s final status unresolved.
The Exodus of Armenians
In 2023, Azerbaijan’s military operation led to the collapse of Artsakh’s government and the mass exodus of ethnic Armenians. Nearly the entire Armenian population fled, fearing persecution—a tragic echo of the 1990s displacement but in reverse.
Karabakh Today: A Ghost Region?
The Geopolitical Chessboard
Karabakh’s fate is now intertwined with broader global rivalries. Russia’s influence is waning, while Turkey’s role grows. The West’s tepid response highlights the complexities of balancing human rights against energy interests (Azerbaijan is a key gas supplier to Europe). Meanwhile, Iran watches nervously, fearing a rise in pan-Turkic sentiment near its borders.
The Cultural Legacy at Risk
With Armenians gone, Karabakh’s Armenian heritage—churches, monasteries, and khachkars (cross-stones)—faces an uncertain future. Azerbaijan has pledged to protect these sites, but skepticism remains. The erasure of cultural memory is a recurring theme in modern conflicts, from Syria to Ukraine, and Karabakh is no exception.
Why Karabakh Matters in a Fractured World
The story of Karabakh is more than a regional dispute—it reflects the challenges of self-determination vs. territorial integrity, the weaponization of history, and the failure of international mediation. As the world faces similar crises—from Taiwan to Kashmir—Karabakh serves as a cautionary tale.
The Role of Energy and Diplomacy
Azerbaijan’s oil and gas wealth has given it leverage in Western capitals, complicating moral stances on human rights. Meanwhile, Armenia, once reliant on Russia, is now seeking closer ties with the EU and US, illustrating the shifting alliances in a multipolar world.
The Human Cost of Geopolitics
Behind the grand narratives are real people—refugees, grieving families, and communities torn apart. The international community’s failure to prevent ethnic cleansing in Karabakh raises uncomfortable questions about the selective application of humanitarian principles.
As the dust settles, Karabakh’s history continues to be written—not just in textbooks, but in the lives of those who once called it home.